[167] These animals do not reproduce well in captivity, due to the difficulty of handling musth bulls and limited understanding of female oestrous cycles. Though the rest of an elephant's skin is strong and thick, its trunk is very soft and sensitive. [152], Other threats to elephants include habitat destruction and fragmentation. The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bone in place of medullary cavities. Their weight can compact the soil, which causes the rain to run off, leading to erosion. From then on, war elephants were employed in the Mediterranean and North Africa throughout the classical period. [16], Over 180 extinct members and three major evolutionary radiations of the order Proboscidea have been recorded. tigers). [102] A cow in oestrus releases chemical signals (pheromones) in her urine and vaginal secretions to signal her readiness to mate. The trade of elephant ivory is vigorously condemned in much of the world, although it still achieves a viable market in some parts of Asia, according to The Nature Conservancy. An elephant uses its trunk to grab objects such as food. A. Schulte. [190] The ancient Romans, who kept the animals in captivity, depicted anatomically accurate elephants on mosaics in Tunisia and Sicily. [13][14][15] In 2017, DNA sequence analysis showed that L. cyclotis is more closely related to the extinct Palaeoloxodon antiquus, than it is to L. africana, possibly undermining the genus Loxodonta as a whole. It has a double-pointed apex, an unusual trait among mammals. Only male elephants were used and these are known to be aggressive and unruly, particularly when in musth. Families may associate and bond with each other, forming what are known as bond groups which typically made of two family groups. The dominant tusk, called the master tusk, is generally more worn down, as it is shorter with a rounder tip. Trumpeting is made during excitement, distress or aggression. This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis. Our approach is real world, not theoretical, and you'll learn through the lens of "being of benefit"—using your work to bring out The former are divided into dorsals, ventrals, and laterals while the latter are divided into transverse and radiating muscles. Chains, ropes, and block-and-tackle are used as restraints. ", International Union for Conservation of Nature, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, traditionally captured with traps and lassos, The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960, List of elephants in mythology and religion, "Ivory and horn production in Mycenaean texts", "Afrotherian mammals: a review of current data", "A comprehensive genomic history of extinct and living elephants", "Chromosome painting in the manatee supports Afrotheria and Paenungulata", "Genomic DNA Sequences from Mastodon and Woolly Mammoth Reveal Deep Speciation of Forest and Savanna Elephants", "Reconciling apparent conflicts between mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies in African elephants", "Palaeogenomes of Eurasian straight-tusked elephants challenge the current view of elephant evolution", "Paleocene emergence of elephant relatives and the rapid radiation of African ungulates", "A proboscidean from the late Oligocene of Eritrea, a "missing link" between early Elephantiformes and Elephantimorpha, and biogeographic implications", "Shoulder height, body mass and shape of proboscideans", "The dental factor in elephant evolution", "Humanity's Grassroots: How Grazing Animals Shaped Evolution", "Elephant Anatomy and Biology: Skeletal system", "Elephant Anatomy and Biology: Special sense organs", "Elephants and human color-blind deuteranopes have identical sets of visual pigments", "Elephant cognition in primate perspective", "Elephants Evolve Smaller Tusks Due to Poaching", "Tuskless elephants evolving thanks to poachers", "Why elephants are not so long in the tusk", "Illegal tusk harvest and the decline of tusk size in the African elephant", "The structure of the cushions in the feet of African elephants (, "The locomotor kinematics of Asian and African elephants: changes with speed and size", "Complex Vibratory Patterns in an Elephant Larynx", "Male reproductive organs of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana", "Mega-gardeners of the forest – the role of elephants in seed dispersal", "Tiger kills elephant at Eravikulam park", "Wild Asian elephants distinguish aggressive tiger and leopard growls according to perceived danger", "Leadership in elephants: the adaptive value of age", Chemical signals in the reproduction of Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants, "Elephant Reproduction Project: The Estrous Cycle of Elephants", "Mate guarding, reproductive success and female choice in African elephants", "Gestating for 22 months: luteal development and pregnancy maintenance in elephants", "Rare elephant twins born in northern Kwa-Zulu Natal", "The influence of surface atmospheric conditions on the range and area reached by animal vocalizations", "African elephants show high levels of interest in the skulls and ivory of their own species", "Behavioural reactions of elephants towards a dying and deceased matriarch", "What really prompts the dog's 'Guilty Look, "Anthropomorphic Double-Talk: Can Animals Be Happy But Not Unhappy? The muscles work both with and against each other. [69] Elephants have a unique organ, the temporal gland, located in both sides of the head. Elephants cannot coexist with humans in agricultural areas due to their size and food requirements. However, they remain a favourite for all visitors to such establishment, as they hold such fascination in the minds and heart of people. As a piece of living tissue, a tusk is relatively soft; it is as hard as the mineral calcite. Directed by Vanessa Berlowitz, Tom Stephens. In Sumatra, elephants have been associated with lightning. Teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically as in most mammals. The third set falls out at 9–15 years of age, and set four lasts until 18–28 years of age. [6] The feet were originally plantigrade and developed into a digitigrade stance with cushion pads and the sesamoid bone providing support. [12] Major feeding bouts take place in the morning, afternoon and night. Seismic waveforms produced by locomotion appear to travel distances of up to 32 km (20 mi) while those from vocalisations travel 16 km (10 mi). After CITES listed the Asian elephant under Appendix I in 1975, the number of African elephants in zoos increased in the 1980s, although the import of Asians continued. [78], Elephants typically coexist peacefully with other herbivores, which will usually stay out of their way. Elephants are also used for the following work, although in much smaller numbers 1. [44] Floppy trunk syndrome is a condition of trunk paralysis in African bush elephants caused by the degradation of the peripheral nerves and muscles beginning at the tip. They appear to have self-awareness, and appear to show empathy for dying and dead family members. When removed, ivory begins to dry up and crack if not kept cool and moist. The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old. INDUSTRYElephants are very effective in labour requiring hard slogging and heavy lifting. Ralph Helfer is known to have relied on gentleness and reward when training his animals, including elephants and lions. By its second week of life, the calf can walk more firmly and has more control over its trunk. Older elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to discipline younger ones. During the dry season, elephant families may cluster together and form another level of social organisation known as the clan. [160][161], The practice of working elephants has also been attempted in Africa. For Asian elephants, these calls have a frequency of 14–24 Hz, with sound pressure levels of 85–90 dB and last 10–15 seconds. About 380 Asians and 190 Africans were known to exist in Europe, and Japan had around 70 Asians and 67 Africans. Elephants can live up to 70 years in the wild. [72] The blood vessels in most of the body are wide and thick and can withstand high blood pressures. During the 10th century AD, the people of Igbo-Ukwu, near the Niger Delta, buried their leaders with elephant tusks. The family Elephantidae also contains several now-extinct groups, including the mammoths and [189] One of the most important Hindu deities, the elephant-headed Ganesha, is ranked equal with the supreme gods Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma. [133] One study of a captive female Asian elephant suggested the animal was capable of learning and distinguishing between several visual and some acoustic discrimination pairs. Male African bush elephants are typically 23% taller than females, whereas male Asian elephants are only around 15% taller than females. By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not badly affected. In some countries, sport hunting of the animals is legal; Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have CITES export quotas for elephant trophies. In addition, they are tilted at 45 degrees and positioned more anteriorly than a human's vocal folds. It is likely that around half of the population is in India. [193] The animals' religious importance is only totemic in Africa[194] but is much more significant in Asia. [2], Elephants belong to the family Elephantidae, the sole remaining family within the order Proboscidea which belongs to the superorder Afrotheria. [44] Losing the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant's survival,[6] although in rare cases, individuals have survived with shortened ones. Female same-sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity where they are known to masturbate one another with their trunks. [189] Elephants were often difficult to portray by people with no first-hand experience of them. This is due to lower predation pressures that would otherwise kill off many of the individuals with significant parasite loads. [187], Elephants have been represented in art since Paleolithic times. Alloparenting – where a calf is cared for by someone other than its mother – takes place in some family groups. With active mentors, editors, and peers, your course will be fun, challenging, and empowering. Alan Roocroft, an elephant consultant to circuses and zoos, cowrote in his book Managing Elephants: [174] Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey circus retired its touring elephants in May 2016. AD 7. Use the symbol of the elephant to represent your aspiration to develop deep wisdom and power in your career. Sometimes, when English speakers want to talk about something nobody really wants to talk about, like a problem or awkward situation, they refer to ‘The elephant in the room’. It is now extinct in these areas,[146] and the current range of Asian elephants is highly fragmented. [50], Like humans, who are typically right- or left-handed, elephants are usually right- or left-tusked. These groups appear to interact with each other, especially at forest clearings. Chances are that if you’ve been learning English for a while you’ve probably heard of this idiomatic expression… The … Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically. 2. The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed, and the temporal lobes are so large that they bulge out laterally. The Asian elephant has only one, and relies more on wrapping around a food item and squeezing it into its mouth. [12] Both kinds of elephant were traditionally considered to be the same species Loxodonta africana, but molecular studies have affirmed their status as separate species. An African bush elephant using its prehensile trunk for foraging, CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (, Rasmussen, L. E. L., and B. Adult bulls mostly interact with family groups when looking for a mate. The IUCN estimates a total of around 440,000 individuals for 2012 while TRAFFIC estimates as many as 55 are poached daily. African elephants also use their trunks to take dust baths, which help to repel insects and guard against the harmful rays of the sun (where the temperature can easily exceed 100 degrees Fahrenheit). [44] They will also spray dust or grass on themselves. Behaviours associated with musth include walking with the head held high and swinging, picking at the ground with the tusks, marking, rumbling and waving only one ear at a time. After a year, a calf's abilities to groom, drink, and feed itself are fully developed. [146], The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence. Male Asian elephants are usually about 261–289 cm (8 ft 7 in–9 ft 6 in) tall at the shoulder and 3.5–4.6 t (3.9–5.1 short tons) whereas females are 228–252 cm (7 ft 6 in–8 ft 3 in) tall at the shoulder and 2.3–3.1 t (2.5–3.4 short tons). [92] She remains leader of the group until death[87] or if she no longer has the energy for the role;[93] a study on zoo elephants showed that when the matriarch died, the levels of faecal corticosterone ('stress hormone') dramatically increased in the surviving elephants. [128] One of the vibratory phenomena that occurred inside the larynx is alternating A-P (anterior-posterior) and P-A traveling waves, which happened due to the unusual larynx layout. Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation, particularly on the forehead and ears and the areas around them. Only when Elephas disappeared from Africa did Loxodonta become dominant once again, this time in the form of the modern species. These paired muscles consist of two major types: superficial (surface) and internal. [155] Musth bulls can be difficult and dangerous to work with and are chained and semi-starved until the condition passes. [6] Lacking a lacrimal apparatus, the eye relies on the harderian gland to keep it moist. Their habit of uprooting trees and undergrowth can transform savannah into grasslands; when they dig for water during drought, they create waterholes that can be used by other animals. [11], Among African elephants, forest elephants have smaller and more rounded ears and thinner and straighter tusks than bush elephants and are limited in range to the forested areas of western and Central Africa. [24] The Pleistocene also saw the arrival of Palaeoloxodon namadicus, the largest terrestrial mammal of all time. The cushion pads of the feet contain cartilaginous nodes and have similarities to the acoustic fat found in marine mammals like toothed whales and sirenians. Warm blood flows into the capillaries, helping to release excess body heat into the environment. [76] Elephants are herbivorous and will eat leaves, twigs, fruit, bark, grass and roots. [171], The use of elephants in circuses has also been controversial; the Humane Society of the United States has accused circuses of mistreating and distressing their animals. [63] Since the limb bones are placed on top of each other and under the body, an elephant can stand still for long periods of time without using much energy. For instance, a "white elephant" is a byword for something expensive, useless, and bizarre. [93], Bulls engage in a behaviour known as mate-guarding, where they follow oestrous females and defend them from other males. Elephants were commonly featured in motifs by the stonemasons of the Gothic churches. Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their low surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is many times smaller than that of a human. A male may stop showing signs of musth when he encounters a musth male of higher rank. [131] When detecting the seismics of an alarm call signalling danger from predators, elephants enter a defensive posture and family groups will pack together. Circus performances involving elephants remain popular because of the elephant’s ability to be trained to perform, and also because of its sheer size. Groups within these clans do not form strong bonds, but they defend their dry-season ranges against other clans. [74] The elephant's penis can reach a length of 100 cm (39 in) and a diameter of 16 cm (6 in) at the base. The ear flaps, or pinnae, contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries. Because they need larger amounts of land than other sympatric terrestrial mammals, they are the first to be affected by human encroachment. Elephants tend to stay near water sources. [176] In Africa, groups of adolescent elephants damaged homes in villages after cullings in the 1970s and 1980s. They appear to rely on their leg and shoulder bones to transmit the signals to the middle ear. However, in the Ramayana, the king of Gods and chief Vedic deity Indra is depicted as riding either Airavata, a mythological elephant… [49] Lin Wang, a captive male Asian elephant, lived for 86 years. [36] The vertebrae are connected by tight joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility. As of 2008, local numbers were controlled by contraception or translocation. [52], In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks. Elephant intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans. With no "aerial phase", the fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, with the hips and shoulders falling and then rising while the feet are on the ground. Three species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. Their closest extant relatives are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes, with which they share the clade Paenungulata within the superorder Afrotheria. Tool use in elephants involves holding branches and scratching themselves in places that the trunk and tail cannot reach. The lower jaw is solid and heavy. Ears are delicate and require a sensitive touch. The female has a well-developed clitoris at up to 40 cm (16 in). [156], Individuals of the Asian species have been often trained as working animals. Distinctive features of all elephants include a long proboscis called a trunk, tusks, large ear flaps, massive legs, and tough but sensitive skin. [140], African elephants were listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2008, with no independent assessment of the conservation status of the two forms. [118], For its first three months, a calf relies entirely on milk from its mother for nutrition, after which it begins to forage for vegetation and can use its trunk to collect water. We will focus on the association between stone and elephant bone bifaces at several … [162], Historically, elephants were considered formidable instruments of war. [6] The animal's sense of smell may be four times as sensitive as that of a bloodhound. The most famous circus elephant was probably Jumbo (1861 – 15 September 1885), who was a major attraction in the Barnum & Bailey Circus. [6] With its trunk, an elephant can reach items at heights of up to 7 m (23 ft) and dig for water under mud or sand. [145], In 2008, the IUCN listed the Asian elephant as endangered due to a 50% population decline over the past 60–75 years[146] while CITES lists the species under Appendix I. [83] In Asian forests, large seeds require giant herbivores like elephants and rhinoceros for transport and dispersal. [118] A new calf is usually the centre of attention for herd members. They are typically surrogates for humans with ideal human values. When males permanently leave, they either live alone or with other males. [108] For young females, the approach of an older bull can be intimidating, so her relatives stay nearby to provide support and reassurance. Births tend to take place during the wet season. Because of the elephant’s incredible capacity for knowledge, understanding, learning and insight, they have proved to be most useful to human beings. [121], Touching is an important form of communication among elephants. By nine months, mouth, trunk and foot coordination is perfected. Males and females both possess two glands that open between the eye and ear. [2] It is attested in Mycenaean Greek as e-re-pa (genitive e-re-pa-to) in Linear B syllabic script. Elephants are highly recognisable and have been featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and popular culture. [60] Their hair is thought to be for thermoregulation, helping them lose heat in their hot environments.[61]. [41], Elephant ears have thick bases with thin tips. Family groups tend to be small, consisting of one or two adult females and their offspring. As more elephants began to be sent to European kings as gifts during the 15th century, depictions of them became more accurate, including one made by Leonardo da Vinci. Calves continue to suckle at the same rate as before until their sixth month, after which they become more independent when feeding. The chewing teeth are replaced six times in a typical elephant's lifetime. Asian elephants were always more common than their African counterparts in modern zoos and circuses. Female Asians have very small tusks, or none at all. [92] Groups of African forest elephants typically consist of one adult female with one to three offspring. This individual was even able to score a high accuracy rating when re-tested with the same visual pairs a year later. The skull grew larger, especially the cranium, while the neck shortened to provide better support for the skull. [77] African elephants are mostly browsers while Asian elephants are mainly grazers. The vocal folds are long and are attached close to the epiglottis base. They were often depicted with horse- or bovine-like bodies with trumpet-like trunks and tusks like a boar; some were even given hooves. Dwarf proboscideans are known to have lived in Indonesia, the Channel Islands of California, and several islands of the Mediterranean. [112][124] Fighting elephants may roar or squeal, and wounded ones may bellow. The Asian elephant also has dorsal bumps on its head and some patches of depigmentation on its skin. Much like many gemstones, ivory is expensive but not practically … [105] Fertility rates in cows decline around 45–50 years of age. Elephants possess several adaptations suited for seismic communication. They replace deciduous milk teeth at 6–12 months of age and grow continuously at about 17 cm (7 in) a year. [149] The ivory trade contributed to the African elephant population decline in the late 20th century. [182][183][184] Several cultural references emphasise the elephant's size and exotic uniqueness. [6] The larynx of the elephant is the largest known among mammals. Spring-like kinetics could explain the difference between the motion of elephants and other animals. The Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus will phase out the show’s iconic elephants from its performances by 2018, saying public concern about animals treatment led to the decision. Like all mammals, an elephant can raise or lower its temperature a few degrees from the average in response to extreme environmental conditions. This could have a factual basis; they possibly have cognitive maps to allow them to remember large-scale spaces over long periods of time. [115] Calves are born 85 cm (33 in) tall and weigh around 120 kg (260 lb). ZOOS and CIRCUSESFortunately, animals’ rights activists are clamping down on circuses and zoos for the capture, confinement and use of wild elephants. [6] The trunk is elongated and specialised to become the elephant's most important and versatile appendage. The Romans in particular pitted them against humans and other animals in gladiator events. Tusks, which are derived from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as tools for moving objects and digging. [97], Male elephants can be quite sociable when not competing for dominance or mates, and will form long-term relationships. [92], The social life of the adult male is very different. In circuses, they are trained to perform tricks. When moving, elephant mothers will touch their calves with their trunks or feet when side-by-side or with their tails if the calf is behind them. They have a hindgut fermentation system, and their large and small intestines together reach 35 m (115 ft) in length. [90] Elephants tend to have high numbers of parasites, particularly nematodes, compared to other herbivores. Elephant tusks are used for obtaining ivory, a hard, white substance that can be found only in the tusks and teeth of certain mammals. At birth, an elephant's brain already weighs 30–40% of its adult weight. [146] Asian elephants once ranged from Syria and Iraq (the subspecies Elephas maximus asurus), to China (up to the Yellow River)[147] and Java. A pair of elephants in the love corner of your home can be used to bring more strength and endurance to your primary relationship. When a cow has mated, her family may produce calls of excitement known as the "mating pandemonium". They use only two gaits when moving on land: the walk and a faster gait similar to running. [176] The Mbuti people of central Africa believe that the souls of their dead ancestors resided in elephants. A "let's go" soft rumble is emitted by the matriarch to signal to the other herd members that it is time to move to another spot. They and other captive elephants are thus protected under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960. Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa[54] and Asia[55] has led to natural selection for shorter tusks[56][57] and tusklessness. In addition to bullhooks, trainers use baseball bats, ax handles, pitchforks, and electric shock. [110] The penis is very mobile, being able to move independently of the pelvis. [44] As a muscular hydrostat, the trunk moves by precisely coordinated muscle contractions. Malay elephant populations have even smaller family units, and do not have any social organisation higher than a family or bond group. Some aggressive interactions between elephants and rhinoceros have been recorded. [143][144], African elephants receive at least some legal protection in every country where they are found, but 70% of their range exists outside protected areas. [141] The Asian elephant lives in areas with some of the highest human populations. Still, members of the species have been killed for their ivory in some areas, such as Periyar National Park in India. [116] As such, newborn elephants are precocial and quickly stand and walk to follow their mother and family herd. [172] In testimony to a US federal court in 2009, Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kenneth Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind their ears, under their chins and on their legs with metal-tipped prods, called bull hooks or ankus. [109] Typically, only a single young is born, but twins sometimes occur. African elephants have larger ears and concave backs, whereas Asian elephants have smaller ears, and convex or level backs. Those of equal rank tend to avoid each other. [32], Several species of proboscideans lived on islands and experienced insular dwarfism. Members of this group included Gomphotherium and Platybelodon. Elephantidae is the only surviving family of the order Proboscidea; extinct members include the mastodons. Where food is plentiful, the groups join together. For this reason, most elephants that were being trained for domestic use were female. [38] The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength. With Jeremy Sisto, Mike Chase, Martyn Colbeck, Clinton Edwards. [46], The core body temperature averages 35.9 °C (96.6 °F), similar to that of a human. They may add to the display by shaking their heads and snapping their ears, as well as throwing dust and vegetation. After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body and this dries into a protective crust. Three species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. [91], Female elephants spend their entire lives in tight-knit matrilineal family groups, some of which are made up of more than ten members, including three mothers and their dependent offspring, and are led by the matriarch which is often the eldest female. Mitigating these conflicts is important for conservation. There is uncertainty as to when elephant warfare first started but it is widely accepted that it began in ancient India.The early Vedic period did not extensively specify the use of elephants in war. In the case of elephants in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, a female's life involves interaction with other families, clans, and subpopulations. [78] At Hluhluwe–Umfolozi Game Reserve, South Africa, introduced young orphan elephants went on a killing spree that claimed the lives of 36 rhinos during the 1990s, but ended with the introduction of older males.

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